Estimation of Muzzle-to-Target Distance

Muzzle-to-target distance estimation involves estimating the distance that one or more projectiles have traveled between the muzzle of a firearm and a target surface during a shooting incident involving humans or animals. The procedure is predominantly undertaken by forensic firearm examiners and ballistics experts as one approach to reconstructing a shooting incident. This article aims to outline the methods by which muzzle-to-target distance estimation is conducted and explain the factors that can influence an examiner’s ability to accurately estimate the firing distance. It also summarizes how distance estimation is reported for criminal investigations and considers how practices may develop in the future.